he arrived at the castle of King Mark, no one recognized him, no one knew whence he had come. But he made too many strange remarks, both familiar and distant; he knew cheap ghd hair too well the secrets of the commonplace not to have been from another, yet nearby, world. He did not come from ghd hair the solid land, with its solid cities; but indeed from the ceaseless unrest of the sea, from those unknown highways which conceal so much strange knowledge, from that fantastic plain, the underside of the world. Iseut, first of all, realized that this madman was a son of the sea, and that insolent sailors had cast him here, a sign of misfortune: “Accursed be the sailors that brought this madman! Why did they not throw him into the sea!”2 And more than once in the course of time, the same theme reappears: among the mystics of the fifteenth century, it has become the motif of the soul as a skiff, abandoned on the infinite sea of desires, in the sterile field of cares and ignorance, among the mirages of knowledge, amid the unreason of the world—a craft at the mercy of the sea’s great madness, unless i pink hair straighteners t throws out a solid anchor, faith, or raises its spiritual sails so that the breath of God may bring it to port. At the end of the sixteenth century, De Lancre sees in the sea the origin of the demoniacal leanings of an entire people: the hazardous labor of ships, dependence on the stars, hereditary secrets, estrangement from women—the very image of the great, turbulent plain itself makes man lose faith in God and all his attachment to his home; he is then in the hands of the Devil, in the sea of Satan’s ruses.8 In the classical period, (12) the melancholy of the English was easily explained by the influence of a maritime climate, c ghd mk4 old, humidity, the instability of the weather; all those fine droplets of water that penetrated the channels and fibers of the human body and made it lose its firmness, predisposed it to madness. Finally, neglecting an immense literature that stretches from Ophelia to the Lorelei, let us note only the great half- anthropological, half-cosmological analyses of Heinroth, which interpret madness as the manifestation in man of an obscure and aquatic element, a dark disorder, a moving chaos, the seed and death of all things, which opposes the mind’s luminous and adult stability. But if the navigation of madmen is linked in the Western mind with so many immemorial motifs, why, so abruptly, in the fifteenth century, is the theme suddenly formulated in literature and iconography? Why does the figure of the Ship of ghd hair styles Fools and its insane crew all at once invade the most familiar landscapes? Why, from the old union of water and madness, was this ship born one day, and on just that day? Because it symbolized a great disquiet, suddenly dawning on the horizon of European culture at the end of t pink ghd he Middle Ages. Madness and the madman become major figures, in their ambiguity: menace and mockery, the dizzying unreason of the world, and the feeble ridicule of men. First a whole literature of tales and moral fables, in origin, doubtless, qu ghd hair styler ite remote. But by the end of the Middle Ages, it bulks large: a long series of “follies” which, stigmatizing vices and faults as in the past, no longer attribute them all to pride, to lack of charity, to neglect of Christian virtues, but to a sort of great unreason for which nothing, in fact, is exactly responsible, but which involves everyone in a kind of secret complicity. The denunciation of madness (la folie) becomes the general form of criticism. (13) In farces and soties, the character of the Madman, the Fool, or the Simpleton assumes more and more importance. He is no longer simply a ridiculous and familiar silhouette in the wings: he stands center stage as the guardian of truth-playing here a role which is the complement and converse of that taken by madness in the tales and the satires. If folly leads each man into a blindness where he is lost, the madman, on the contrary, reminds each man of his truth; in a comedy where each man deceives the other and dupes himself, the madman is comedy to the second degree: the deception of deception; he utters, in his simpleton’s language which makes no show of reason, the words of reason that release, ghd hair styles uk in the comic, the comedy: he speaks love to lovers, the truth of l pink ghd ife to the young, the middling reality of things to the proud, to the insolent, and to liars. Even the old feasts of fools, so popular in Flanders and northern Europe, were theatrical events, and organized into social and moral criticism, whatever th ghd iv ey may have contained of spontaneous religious parody. In learned literature, too. Madness or Folly was at work, at the very heart of reason and truth. It is Folly which embarks all men without distinction on its insane ship and binds them to the vocation of a common odyssey (Van Oestvoren’s Blauwe Schute, Brant’s Narrenschiff); it is Folly whose baleful reign Thomas Mumer conjures up in his Narrenbeschwonmg; it is Folly which gets the best of Love in Corroz’s satire Centre fol amour, or argues with Love as to which of the two comes first, which of the two makes the other possible, and triumphs in Louise Labe’s dialogue, Debat de folie et d’amour. Folly also has its academic pastimes; it is the object of argument, it contends against itself; it is denounced, and defends itself by claiming that it is closer to happiness and truth than reason, that it is closer to reason than reason itself; Jakob Wimpfeling edits the Monopolium philosophorum, and Judocus Gallus the (14) Monopolium et societas, vulgo des lichtschiffs. Fi ghd ceramic iron nally, at the center of all these serious games, the great humanist texts: the Moria rediviva of Flayder and Erasmus’s Praise of Folly. And confronting all these discussions, with their tireless dialectic, confronting these discourses constantly reworded and reworked, a long dynasty of ghd sale images, from Hieronymus Bosch w ghd products ith The Cure of Madness and The Ship of Fools, down to Brueghel and his Dulle Griet, woodcuts and engravings transcribe what the theater, what literature and art have already taken up: the intermingled themes of the Feast and of the Dance of Fools. Indeed, from the fifteenth century on, the face of madness has haunted the imagination of Western man. A sequence of dates speaks for itself: the Dance of Death in the Cimetiere des Innocents doubtless dates from the first years of the fifteenth century, the one in the Chaise-Dieu was probably composed around 1460; and it was in 1485 that Guyot Marchant published his Danse macabre. These sixty years, certainly, were dominated by all this grinning imagery of Death. And it was in 1494 that Brant wrote the Narrenschiff; in 1497 it was translated into Latin. In the very last years of the century Hieronymus Bosch painted his Ship of Fools. The Praise of Folly dates from 1509. The order of succession is clear.

the gate of the rich man and was carried straight to paradise.” Abandonment is his salvation; his exclusion offers him another form of communion. Leprosy disappeared, the leper vanished, or almost, from memory; these structures remained. Often, in these same places, the formulas of exclusion would be repeated, strangely similar two or three centuries later. Poor vagabonds, criminals, and “deranged minds” would take the part played by the leper, and we shall see what salvation was expected from this exclusion, for them and for those who excluded them as well. With an altogether new meaning and in a very different culture, the forms would remain—essentially that major form of a rigorous division which is social exclusion but spiritual reintegration. Something new appears in the imaginary landscape of the Renaissance; soon it will occupy a privileged place there: pink ghd the Ship of Fools, a strange “drunken boat” that glides along the calm rivers of the Rhineland and the Flemish canals. The Narrenschiff, of course, is a literary composition, probably borrowed from the old Argonaut cycle, one of the great mythic themes recently revived and rejuvenated, acquiring an institutional aspect in the Burgundy Estates. Fashion favored the composition of these Ships, whose (7) crew of imaginary heroes, ethical models, or social types embarked on a great symbolic voyage which would bring them, if not fortune, then cheap ghd hair at least the figure of their destiny or their truth. Thus Symphorien Champier composes a Ship of Princes and Battles of Nobility in 1502, then a Ship of Virtuous Ladies in 1503; there is also a Ship of Health, alongside the Blauive Schute of Jacob van Oestvoren in 1413, Sebastian Brant’s Narrenschiff (1494), and the work of Josse Bade-Stultiferae naviculae scaphae fatuarum mulierum ghd hair styler (1498). Bosch’s painting, of course, belongs to this dream fleet. But of all these romantic or satiric vessels, the Narrenschiff is the only one that had a real existence—for they did exist, these boats that conveyed their insane cargo from town to town. Madmen then led an easy wandering existence. The towns drove them outside their limits; they were allowed to wander in the open countryside, when not entrusted to a group of merchants and pilgrims. The custom was especially frequent in Germany; in Nuremberg, in the first half of the fifteenth century, the presence of 63 madmen had been registered; 31 were driven away; in the fifty years that followed, there are records of 21 more obligatory departures; and these are only the madmen arrested by the municipal authorities. Frequently they were handed over to boatmen: in Frankfort, in 1399, seamen were instructed to rid the city of a madman who walked about the streets naked; in the first years of the fifteenth century, a criminal madman was expelled in the same manner from Mainz. Sometimes the sailors disembarked these bothersome passengers sooner than they had promised; witness a blacksmith of Frankfort twice expelled an pink ghd d twice returning before being taken to Kreuznach for good. Often the cities of Europe must have seen these “ships of fools” approaching their harbors. It is not easy to discover the exact meaning of this cus- (8) tom. One might suppose it was a general means of extradition by which municipalities sent wandering madmen out of their own jurisdiction; a hypothesis which will not in itself account for the facts, since certain madmen, even before special houses were built for them, were admitted to hospitals and cared for as such; at the Hotel-Dieu in Paris, their cots were set up in the dormitories. Moreover, in the majority of the cities of Europe there existed throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance a place of detention reserved for the insane; there was for example the Chatelet of Melun or the famous Tour aux Fous in Caen; there were the numberless Narrtunner of Germany, like the gates of Lubeck or the Jungpfer of Hamburg. Madmen were thus not invariably expelled. One might then speculate that among them only foreigners were driven away, each city agreeing to care for those madmen among its own citizens. Do we not in fact find among the account books of certain medieval cities subsidies for madmen or donations made for the care of the insane? However, the problem is not so simple, for there existed gathering places where the madmen, more numerous than elsewhere, were not autoch-thonous. First come the shrines: Saint-Mathurin de Larchant, Saint-Hildevert de Gournay, Besancon, Gheel; pilgrimages to these places were organized, often supported, by cities or hospitals. It is possible that these ships of fools, which haunted the imagination of the entire early Renaissance, were pilgrimage boats, highly symbolic cargoes of madmen in search of their reason: some went down the Rhineland rivers toward Belgium and Gheel; others sailed up the Rhine toward the Jura and Besancon. But other cities, like Nuremberg, were certainly not shrines and yet contained great numbers of madmen-many more, in any case, than could have been furnished by the city itself. These madmen were housed and provided fo gh ghd hair styles d ceramic iron r in the city budget, and yet they w ghd sale ere not given treat (9 ghd iv ) ment; they were simply thrown into prison. We may suppose that in certain important cities— centers of travel and markets—madmen had been brought in considerable numbers by merchants and mariners and “lost” there, thus ridding their native cities of their presence. It may have happened that these places of “counrerpilgrimage” have become confused with the places where, on the contrary, the insane were taken as pilgrims. Interest in cure and in exclusion coincide: madmen were confined in the holy locus of a miracle. It is possible that the village of Gheel developed in this manner—a shrine that became a ward, a holy land where madness hoped for deliverance, but where man enacted, according to old themes, a sort of ritual division. What matters is that the vagabond madmen, the act of driving them away, their departure and embarkation do not assume their entire significance on the plane of social utility or security. Other meanings much closer to rite are certainly present; and we can still discern some traces of them. Thus access to churches was denied to madmen, although ecclesiastical law did not deny them the use of the sacraments. The Church takes no action against a priest who goes mad; but in Nuremberg in 1421 a mad priest was expelled with particular solemnity, as if the impurity was multiplied by the sacred nature of his person, and the city put on its budget the money given him as a viaticum. It happened that certain madmen were publicly whipped, and in the course of a kind of a game they were chased in a mock race and driven out of the city with quarterstaff blows. So many signs that the expulsion of madmen had become one of a number of ritual exiles. Thus we better understand the curious implication assigned to the navigation of madmen and the prestige attending it. On the one hand, we must not minimize its incontestable practical effectiveness: to hand a madman over to sailors was to be permanently sure he would not be prowl (10) ing ghd hair styles uk beneath the city walls; it made sure that he would ghd hair go far away; it made him a pr ghd products isoner of his own departure. But water adds to this the dark mass of its own values; it carries off, but it does more: it purifies. Navigation delivers man to the uncertainty of fate; on water, each of us is in the hands of his own destiny; every embarkation is, potentially, the last. It is for the other world that the madman sets sail in his fools’ boat; it is from the other world that he comes when he disembarks. The madman’s voyage is at once a rigorous division and an absolute Passage. In one sense, it simply develops, across a half-real, half-imaginary geography, the madman’s liminal position on the horizon of medieval concern—a position symbolized and made real at the same time by the madman’s privilege of being confined within the city gates: his exclusion must enclose him; if he cannot and must not have another prison than the threshold itself, he is kept at the point of passage. He is put in the interior of the exterior, and inversely. A highly symbolic position, which will doubtless remain his until our own day, if we are willing to admit that pink hair straighteners what was formerly a visible fortress of order has now become the castle of our conscience. Water and navigation certainly play this role. Confined on the ship, from which there is no escape, the madman is delivered to the river with its thousand arms, the sea with its thousand roads, to that great uncertainty external to everything. He is a prisoner in the midst of what is the freest, the openest of routes: bound fast at the infinite crossroads. He is the Passenger par excellence: that is, the prisoner of the passage. And the land he will come to is unknown— as is, once he disembarks, the land from which he comes. He has his truth and his homeland only in that fruitless expanse between two countries that cannot belong to him. Is it this ritual and these values which are at the origin of the long imaginary relationship that can be traced (11) through the whole of Western culture? Or is ghd mk4 it, conversely, this relationship that, from time immemorial, has called into being and established the rite of embarkation? One thing at least is certain: water and madness have long been linked in the dreams of European man. Already, disguised as a madman, Tristan had ordered boatmen to land him on the coast of Cornwall. And when

MADNESS AND CIVILIZATI ON A History of Insanity in the A ge pink ghd of R ea so n Also by Mich el Fouc ault The Orde r of Thin gs: An Arch aeolo gy of the Hum an Scie nces Engl ish / Russ ian The Archaeology of Knowledge (and The Discourse on Language) / Russian The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception / Russian I, Pierre Riviere, having slaughtered my mother, my sister, and my brother… .A Case of Parricide in the Nineteenth Century Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison The History of Sexuality, Volumes 1, (russ) 2 ghd hair styles (russ) and 3 (russ) Herculine Barbin, Being the Recently Discovered Memoirs of a Nineteenth- Century French Hermaphrodite Power/Knowledge (russ): Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972-1977 The Foucault Reader (edited by Paul Rabinow) Translated from the French by RICHARD HOWARD Vintage Books A DIVISION OF RANDOM HOUSE New York MADNESS AND CIVILIZATIO N A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason MICHEL FOUCAULT This translation is of the edition abridged by the author and published in the Plon 10/18 series. However, the author has added some additional material from the ghd iv original edition, including the chapter “Passion and Delirium.” Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Foucault, Michel. Madness and civilization. Translation of Folie et deraison; histoire de la folie. Includes bibliographical references. 1. Psychiatry— History. 2. Mental illness. I. Title. Manufactured in the United States of America 13579C8642 INTRODUCTION MICHEL FOUCAULT has achieved something truly creative in this book on the history of madness during the ghd ceramic iron so-called classical age: the end ghd sale of the sixteenth and the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Rather than to review historically the concept of madness, the author has chosen to recreate, mostly from original documents, mental illness, folly, and unreason as they must have existed in their time, place, and proper social perspective. In a sense, he has tried to re-create the negative part of the concept, that which has disappeared under the retroactive influence of present-day ideas and the passage of time. Too many historical books about psychic disorders look at the past in the light of the present; they single out only what has positive and direct relevance to present-day psychiatry. This book belongs to the few which demonstrate how skillful, sensitive scholarship uses history to enrich, deepen, and reveal new avenues for thought and investigation. No oversimplifications, no black-and-white statements, no sweeping generalizations are ever allowed in this book; folly is brought back to life as a complex social phenomenon, part and parcel of the human condition. Most of the time, f ghd hair styles uk or the sake of clarity, we examine madness through one of its facets; as M. Foucault animates one facet of the problem after the other, he always keeps them related to each other. The end of the Middle Ages emphasized the comic, but just as often the tragic aspect of madness, as in Tristan and Iseult, for example. The Renaissance, with (v) Erasmus’s Praise of Folly, demonstrated how fascinating imagination and some of ghd products its vagaries were to the thinkers of that day. The French Revolution, Pinel, and Tuke emphasized political, legal, medical, or religious aspects of madness; and today, our so-called objective medical approach, in spite of the benefits that it has brought to the mentally ill, continues to look at only one side of the picture. Folly is so human that it has common roots with poetry and tragedy; it is revealed as much in the insane asylum as in the writings of a Cervantes or a Shakespeare, or in the deep psychological insights ghd hair and cries of revolt of a Nietzsche. Correctly or incorrectly, the author feels that Freud’s death instinct also stems from the tragic elements which led men of all epochs to worship, laugh at, and dread folly simultaneously. Fascinating as Renaissance men found it— they painted it, praised it, sang about it—it also heralded for them death of the body by picturing death of the mind. Nothing is more illuminating than to follow with M. Foucault the many threads which are woven in this complex book, whether it speaks of changing symptoms, commitment procedures, or treatment. For example: he sees a definite connection between some of the attitudes toward madness and the disappearance, between 1200 and 1400, of leprosy. In the middle of the twelfth century, France had more than 2,000 leprosariums, and England and Scotland 220 for a population of a million and a half people. As leprosy vanished, in part because of segregation, a void was created and the moral values attached to the leper had to find another scapegoat. Mental illness and unreason attracted that stigma to themselves, but pink hair straighteners even this was neither complete, simple, nor immediate. Renaissance men developed a delightful, yet horrible way of dealing with their mad denizens: they were put on a ship and entrusted to mariners because folly, water, and sea, as everyone then “knew,” had an affinity for each (vi) other. Thus, “Ships of Fools” crisscrossed the seas and canals of Europe with their comic and pathetic cargo of souls. Some of them found pleasure and even a cure in the changing surroundings, in the isolation of being cast off, while others withdrew further, became worse, or died alone and away from their families. The cities and villages which had thus rid themselves of their crazed and crazy, could now take pleasure in watching the exciting sideshow when a ship full of foreign lunatics would dock at their harbors. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw much social unrest and eco ghd mk4 nomic depression, which they tried to solve by imprisoning the indigents with the criminals and forcing them to work. The demented fitted quite naturally between those two extremes of social maladjustment and iniquity. A nice and hallowed tradition has labeled Tuke and Pinel as the saviors of the mentally ill, but the truth of the matter is not so simple. Many others had treated them with kindness, pleading that they belonged first and foremost with their families, and for at least two hundred years before the i78os, legislation had been considered or passed to segregate criminals and indigents from fools. But this legislation was prompted, as often as not, by a desire to protect the poor, the criminal, the man imprisoned for debts, and the juvenile delinquent from the frightening be cheap ghd hair stiality of the madman. As the madman had replaced the leper, the mentally ill person was now a subhuman and beastly scapegoat; hence the need to protect others. While the Quaker Tuke applied his religious principles, first to demented “friends” and later to foes also, partly to convert them, the great Pinel was not sure at times that he was de pink ghd aling with sick people; he often marveled at their unbelievable endurance of physical hardship, and often cited the ability of schizophrenic women to sleep naked in subfreezing temperatures without suffering any ill effects. Were not these (vii) people more healthy, more resistant than ordinary human beings? Didn’t they have too much animal spirit in them? Naturally, it is impossible to discuss a book as complex as Madness and Civilization without oversimplifying and doing it an injustice. It is a tale of nuances, relative values, and delicate shadings. Yet, it is an impressive monument: in a dispassionate manner it marshals overwhelming evidence to dispel more effectively than many previous attempts the myth of mental illness, and re-establishes folly and unreason in their rightful place as complex, human—too human—phenomena. The roots and symptoms of folly are being looked for today in psychology, medicine, and sociology, but they were and still are as present and important in art,* religion, ethics, and epistemology. Madness is really a manifestation of the “soul,” a variable concept which from antiquity to the twentieth century covered approximately what came to be known, after Freud, as the unconscious part of the human mind. + Only time will tell how much better students of the psyche can look at the future, after reading this sobering re-creation of yesteryear’s madness and the ineffective attempts of humanity to treat it by amputation, projections, prejudices, and segregation. JOSE BARCHILON, M.D. ghd hair styler * My only quarrel with the book is the lack of emphasis on the humoristic elements in psychoses and neuroses: i.e., the patient laughs at himself, or laughs at the world through his illness. + The fear and dread of madness is as real a factor in social and medical attitudes or measures as anxiety, symptoms, and resistance in coping with impulses from the individual unconscious; even

of education either. “The priestly spirit has been encouraged,” she wrote.[53] “France is overrun with convents, and wretched friars have been allowed to take pink ghd possession of education.” She considered that wherever the Church was mistress, it left its marks, which were unmistakable: stupidity and brutishness. She gave Brittany as an example. [53] _Correspondance:_ To Barbes, May 12, 1867. “There is nothing left,” she writes, “when the priest and Catholic vandalism have passed by, destroying the monuments of the old world and leaving their lice for the future.”[54] [54] _Ibid.:_ To Flaubert, September 21, 1860. 171 George Sand George Sand _Mademoiselle La Quintinie_ is the result of a fit of anti-clerical mania. George Sand gives, in this novel, the counterpart of _Sibylle_. Emile Lemontier, a free-thinker, is in love with the daughter of General La Quintinie. Emile is troubled in his mind because, as his _fiancee_ is a Catholic, he knows she will have to have a confessor. The idea ghd iv is intolerable to him, as, like Monsieur Homais, he considers that a husband could not endure the idea of his wife having private conversations with one of those individuals. Mademoiselle La Quintinie’s confessor is a certain Moreali, a near relative of Eugene Sue’s Rodin. The whole novel turns on the struggle between Emile and Moreali, which ends in the final discomfiture of Moreali. Mademoiselle La Quintinie is to marry Emile, who will teach her to be a free-thinker. Emile is proud of his work of drawing a soul away from Christian communion. He considers that the light of reason is always sufficient for illuminating the path in a woman’s life. He thinks that her natural rectitude will prove sufficient for making a good woman of her. I do not wish to call this into question, but even if she should not err, is it not possible that she may suffer? This freethinker imagines that it is possible to tear belief from a heart without rending it and causing an incurable wound. Oh, what a poor psychologist! He forgets that beliefis the summing up and the continuation of the belief of a whole series of generations. He does not hear the ghd ceramic iron distant murmur of the prayers of by- ghd sale gone years. It is in vain to endeavour to stifle those prayers; they will be heard for ever within the crushed and desolate soul. _Mademoiselle La Quintinie_ is a work of hatred. George Sand was not successful with it. She had no vocation for writing such books, and she was not accustomed to writing them. It is a novel full of tiresome dissertations, and it is extremely dull. From that date, though, George Sand experienced the joy of a certain popularity. At theatrical performances and at funerals the students manifested in her honour. It was the same for Sainte-Beuve, but this 172 George Sand George Sand cheap ghd hair We will pass over all this, and turn to something that we can admire. The robust and triumphant old age of George Sand was admirable. Nearly every year she went to some fresh place in France to find a setting for her stories. She had to earn her living to the very ghd products last, and was doomed to write novels for ever. “I shall be turning my wheel when I die,” she used to say, and, after all, this is the proper ending for a literary worker. In 1870 and 1871, she suffered all the anguish of the “Terrible Year.” When once the nightmare was over, she set to work once more like a true daughter of courageous France, unwilling to give in. She was as hardy as iron as she grew old. “I walk to the river,” she wrote in 1872, “and bathe in the cold water, warm as I am. . . . I am of the same nature as the grass in the field. Sunshine and water are all I need.” For a woman of sixty-eight to be able to bathe every day in the cold water of the Indre is a great deal. In May, 1876, she was not well, and had to stay in bed. She was ill for ten days, and died without suffering much. She is buried at Nohant, according to her wishes, so that her last sleep is in her beloved Berry. In conclusion, we would say just a ghd hair few words about George Sand’s genius, and the place that she takes in the history of the French novel. On comparing George Sand with the novelists of her time, what strikes us most is how different she was from them. She is neither like Balzac, Stendhal, nor Merimee, nor any story-teller of our thoughtful, clever and refined epoch. She reminds us more of the “old novelists,” of those who told stories of chivalrous deeds and of old legends, or, to go still further back, she reminds us of the _aedes_ of old Greece. In the early days of a nation there were always men who went to the crowd and charmed them with the stories they told in a wordy way. They scarcely knew whether they invented these stories as they told them, or whether they had heard them somewhere. They could not tell either which was fiction and which reality pink hair straighteners , for all reality seemed wonderful to them. All the people about whom they told were great, all objects were good and everything beautiful. They mingled nursery-tales with myths that were quite sensible, and the 173 George Sand George Sand George Sand did not employ a versified form for her stories, but she belonged to the family of these poets. She was a poet herself who had lost her way and come into our century of prose, and she continued her singing. Like these early poets, she was primitive. Like them, she obeyed a god within her. All her talent was instinctive, and she had all the ease of instinctive talent. When Flaubert complained to George Sand of the “tortures” that style cost him, she endeavoured to admire him. “When I see the difficulty that my old friend has in writing his novel, I am discouraged about my own case, and I say to myself that I am writing poor sort of literature.” This was merely her charity, for she never understood that there could be any effort in writing. Consequently she could not understand that it should cause suffering. For her, writing was a pleasure, as it was the satisfaction of a need. As her works were no ghd mk4 effort to her, they left no trace in her memory ghd hair styles . She had not intended to write them, and, when once written, she forgot them. “_Consuelo and La Comtesse de Rudolstadt_, what are these books?” she asks. “Did I write them? I do not remember a single word of them.” Her novels were like fruit, which, when ripe, fell away from her. George Sand always returned to the celebration of certain great themes which are the eternal subjects of all poetry, subjects such as love and nature, and sentiments like enthusiasm and pity. The very language completes the illusion. The choice of words was often far from perfect, as George Sand’s vocabulary was often uncertain, and her expression lacked precision and relief. But she had the gift of imagery, and her images were always delightfully fresh. She never lost that rare faculty which she possessed of being surprised at things, so that she looked at everything with youthful eyes. There is a certain movement which carries the reader on, and a rhythm that is soothing. She develops the French phrase slowly perhaps, but without any confusion. Her language is like those rivers which flow along full and limpid, between pink ghd flowery 174 George Sand George Sand The share which belongs to George Sand in the history of the French novel is that of having impregnated the novel with the poetry in her own soul. She gave to the novel a breadth and a range which it had never hitherto had. She celebrated the hymn of Nature, of love and of goodness in it. She revealed to us the country and the peasants of France. She gave satisfaction to the romantic tendency which is in every one of us, to a more or less degree. All this is more even than is needed to ensure her fame. She denied ever having written for posterity, and she predicted that in fifty years she would be forgotten. It may be that there has been for her, as there is for every illustrious author who dies, a time of test and a period of neglect. The triumph of naturalism, by influencing taste for a time, may ghd hair styler have stopped our reading George Sand. At present we are just as tired of documentary literature as we are disgusted with brutal literature. We are gradually coming back to a better comprehension of what there is of “truth” in George Sand’s conception of the novel. This may be summed up in a few words– to charm, to touch and to console. Those ghd hair styles uk of us who know something of life may perhaps wonder whether to console may not be the final aim of literature. George Sand’s literary ideal may be read in the following words, which she wrote to Flaubert: “You make the people who read your books still sadder than they were before. I want to make them less unhappy.” She tried to do this, and she often succeeded in her attempt. What greater praise can we give to her than that? And how can we help adding a little gratitude and affection to our admiration for the woman who was the good fairy of the contemporary novel? THE END 175

George Sand All this is worthy of note, as ghd ceramic iron it is essential for understanding the ghd sale work of Alexandre Dumas _fils_. He, too, was a natural son, and his illegitimate birth had caused him much suffering. He was sent to the Pension Goubaux, and for several years he endured the torture he describes with such harshness at the beginning of _L’Affaire Clemenceau_. He was exposed to all kinds of insults and blows. His first contact with society taught him that this society was unjust, and that it made the ghd products innocent suffer. The first experience he had was that of the cruelty and cowardice of men. His mind was deeply impressed by this, and he never lost the impression. He did not forgive, but made it his mission to denounce the pharisaical attitude of society. His idea was to treat men according to their merits, and to pay them back for the blows he had received as a child.[49] It is easy, therefore, to understand how the private grievances of Dumas _fils_ had prepared his mind to welcome a theatre which took the part of the oppressed and waged war with social prejudices. I am fully aware of the difference in temperament of the two writers. Dumas _fils_, with his keen observation, was a pessimist. He despised woman, and he advises us to kill her, under the pretext that she has always remained “the strumpet of the land of No.” although she coloured ghds uk may be dressed in a Worth costume and wear a Reboux hat. [49] See our study of ghd hair Dumas _fils_ in a volume entitled _Portraits d’ecrivains._ As a dramatic author, Alexandre Dumas _fils_ had just what George Sand lacked. He was vigorous, he had the art of brevity and brilliant dialogue. It is thanks to all this that we have one of the masterpieces of the French theatre, _Le Marquis de Villemer_, as a result of their collaboration. We know from George Sand’s letters the share that Dumas _fils_ had in this work. He helped her to take the play from her novel, and to write the scenario. After this, when once pink hair straighteners the play was written, he touched up the dialogue, putting in more emphasis and brilliancy. It was Dumas, therefore, who constructed the play. We all know how careless George Sand was with her composition. She wrote with scarcely any plan in her 155 George Sand George Sand “What do the doctors say?” is asked, and the reply comes: “What do the doctors say? Well, they say just what they know: they say nothing.” “My brother declares that the air of Paris is the only air he can breathe,” says another character. “Congratulate him for me ghd mk4 on his lungs,” remarks his interlocutor. “Her husband was a baron . . .” remarks some one. “Who is not a baron at present?” answers another person. A certain elderly governess is being discussed. “Did you not know her?” “Mademoiselle Artemise? No, monsieur.” “Have you ever seen an albatross?” “No, never.” “Not even stuffed? Oh, you should go to the Zoo. It is a curious creature, with its great beak ending in a hook. . . . It eats all day long. . . . Well, Mademoiselle Artemise, etc. . . .” The _Marquis de Villemer_ is in its place in the series of George Sand’s plays, and is quite in accordance with the general tone of her theatre. It is like the _Mariage de Victorine_ over again. This time coloured ghds Victorine is a reader, who gets herself married by a Marquis named Urbain. He is of a gloomy disposition, so pink ghd that she will not enjoy his society much, but she will be a Marquise. Victorine and Caroline are both persons who know how to make their way in the world. When they have a son, I should be very much surprised if they allowed him to make a _mesalliance_. 156 George Sand George Sand At the epoch at which we have now arrived, George Sand had ghd hair styler commenced that period of tranquillity and calm in which she was to spend the rest of her life. She had given up politics, for, as we have seen, she was quickly undeceived with regard to them, and cured of her illusions. When the _coup d’etat_ of December, 1851, took place, George Sand, who had been Ledru-Rollin’s collaborator and a friend of Barbes, soon made up her mind what to do. As the daughter of Murat’s _aide-de-camp_, she naturally had a certainsympathy with the Bonapartists. Napoleon III was a socialist, so that it was possible to come to an understanding. When the prince had been a prisoner at 157 George Sand George Sand George Sand deserves special mention for her science in the art of growing old. It is not a science easy to master, and personally this is one of my reasons for admiring her. She understood what a charm there is in that time of life when the pink ghd voice of the passions is no longer heard, so that we can listen to the voice of things and examine the lesson of life, that time when our reason makes us more indulgent, when the sadness of earthly separations is softened by the thought that we shall soon go ourselves to join those who have left us. We then begin to have a foretaste of the calmness of that Great Sleep which is to console us at the end ghd iv of all our sufferings and grief. George Sand was fully aware of the change that had taken place within her. She said, several times over, that the age of impersonality had arrived for her. She was delighted at having escaped from herself and at being free from egoism. From henceforth she could give herself up to the sentiments which, in pedantic and barbarous jargon, are called altruistic sentiments. By this we mean motherly and grandmotherly affection, devotion to her family, and enthusiasm for all that is beautiful and noble. She was delighted when she was told of a generous deed, and charmed by a book in which she discovered talent. It seemed to her as though she were in Discount ghd straighteners some way joint author of it. 158 George Sand George Sand [50] _Correspondance:_ To Octave Feuillet, February 27, 1859. This is a noble sentiment, and less

National Guard, who were tranquil members of society, but on the 17th there was a counter-manifestation of the Clubs and workingmen. On such days the meeting-place would be at the Bastille, and from morning to night groups, consisting of several hundred thousand men, would march about Paris, sometimes in favour of the Assembly against the Provisional Government, and sometimes in favour ghd hair of the Provisional Government against the Assembly. On the 17th of April, George Sand was in the midst of the crowd, in front of the Hotel de Ville, in order to see better. On the 15th of May, as the populace was directing its efforts against the Palais Bourbon, she was in the Rue de Bourgogne, in her eagerness not to miss anything. As she was passing in front of a _cafe_, she saw a woman 137 Discount ghd straighteners George Sand George Sand [42] _Correspondance:_ To the Citizen Thore, May 28, 1848. “If, instead of following Lamartine’s stupid, insipid policy,” she then wrote, “we had challenged all absolute monarchies, we should have had war outside, but union at home, and strength, in consequence of this, it home and abroad.”[43] Like the great ancestors, she declared that the revolutionary idea is neither that of a pink hair straighteners sect nor of a party. “It is a religion,” she says, “that we want to proclaim.” All this zeal, this passion and this persistency in a woman is not surprising, ghd mk4 but one does not feel much confidence in a certain kind of inspiration for politics after all this. [43] _Correspondance:_ To Mazzini, October 10, 1849. My reason for dwelling on the subject is that George Sand did not content herself with merely looking on at the events that were taking place, or even with talking about them with her friends. She took part in the events, by means of her pen. She scattered abroad all kinds of 138 George Sand George Sand In George Sand’s piece, Moliere was at work with his servant, Laforet, who could not read, but without whom, it appears, he could not have written a line. He has not finished his play, the actors have not learnt their parts, and the king is impatient at being kept waiting. Moliere is perplexed, and, not knowing what to do, he decides to go to sleep. The pink ghd Muse appears to him, styles him “the light of the people,” and brings to him all the ghosts of the great poets before him. AEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and coloured ghds uk Shakespeare all declare ghd hair styler to him that, in their time, they had all worked towards preparing the Revolution of 1848. Moliere then wakes up, and goes on to the stage to pay his respects to the king. The 139 George Sand George Sand We recognize the democrat in all this. _Le Roi_ _attend_ may be considered as an authentic curiosity of revolutionary art. The newspaper announced to its readers that subscriptions could be paid in the Rue Richelieu. Subscribers were probably not forthcoming, as the paper died a natural death after the third number. George Sand did much more than this, though.[44] We must not forget that she was an official publicist in 1848. She had volunteered her services to Ledru-Rollin, and he had pink ghd accepted them. “I am as busy as a statesman,” she wrote at this time. “I have already written two Government circulars.”[45] [44] With regard to ghd iv George Sand’s _role_, see _La Revolution de_ 1848, by Daniel Stern (Madame d’Agoult). [45] _Correspondance:_ To Maurice Sand, March 24, 1848. With George Sand’s collaboration, the _Bulletin de la Republique_ became unexpectedly interesting. This paper was published every other day, by order of Ledru-Rollin, and was intended to establish a constant interchange of ideas and sentiments between the Government and the coloured ghds people. “It was specially addressed to the people of rural districts, and was in the form of a poster that the mayor of the place could have put up on the walls, and also distribute to the postmen to be given away. The _Bulletins_ were anonymous, but several of them were certainly written by George Sand. The seventh is one of these, and also the twelfth. The latter was written with a view to drawing the attention of the public to the wretched lot of the ghd ceramic iron women and girls of ghd sale the lower classes, who were reduced to prostitution by the lowness of their wages. Their virginity is an object of traffic,” we are told, “quoted on the exchange of infamy.” ghd products The sixteenth _Bulletin_ was simply an appeal for revolt. George Sand was looking ahead to what ought to take place, in case the elections did not lead to the triumph of social truth. “The people,” she hoped, “would know their duty. There would, in that case, be only one way of salvation for the people who had erected barricades, and that would be to manifest 140

to be devoured by the State, 124 George Sand George Sand It was Pierre Leroux, also, who led George Sand on to Socialism. She had been on the way to it by herself. For a long time she had been raising an altar in her heart to that entity called the People, and she had been adorning it with all the virtues. The future belonged to the people, the whole of the future, and first of all that of literature. Poetry was getting a little worn out, but to restore its freshness there were the poets of the people. Charles Poncy, of Toulon, a bricklayer, published a volume of poetry, in 1842, entitled _Marines_. George Sand adopted him. He was the demonstration of her theory, the example which illustrated her dream. She congratulated him and encouraged him. “You are a great poet,” she said to him, and she thereupon speaks of him to all her friends. “Have you read Baruch?” she asks them. “Have you read Poncy, a poet bricklayer of twenty years of age?” She tells every one about his book, dwells on its beauties, and asks people to speak of it. As a friend of George Sand, I have examined the poems by Poncy of pink ghd which she specially speaks. The first one is entitled _Meditation sur les toits_. The poet has been obliged to stay on the roof to complete his work, and while there he meditates. _”Le travail me retient bien tard sur ces toitures_. . . .” 125 George Sand George Sand _Que de fois contemolant cet amas de maisons Quetreignent nos remparts couronnes de gazons, Et ces faubourgs naissants que la ville trop pleine Pour ses enfants nouveaux eleve dans la plaine. Immobiles troufieaux ou notre clocher gris Semble un patre au milieu de ses blanches brebis, Jai pense que, malgre notre angoisse et nos peines, Sous ces toits ghd iv paternels il existait des haines, Et que des murs plus forts que ces murs mitoyens Separent ici-bas les coeurs des citoyens._ This was an appeal to concord, and all brothers of humanity were invited to rally to the watchword. The intention was no doubt very good. Then, too, _murs mitoyens_ was an extremely rich and unexpected rhyme for _citoyens_. This was worthy indeed of a man of that party. Another of the poems greatly admired by George Sand was _Le Forcat_. _Regarder le forcat sur la poutre equarrie Poser son sein hale que le remords carie_. . . Certainly if Banville were to lay claim to having invented rhymes that are puns, we could only say that he was a plagiarist after reading Charles Poncy. In another poem addressed to the rich, entitled _L’hiver_, the poet notices with grief that the winter . . . _qui remplit les salons, les Wdtres, Remplit aussi la Morgue et les amphitheatres._ He is afraid that the people will, in the end, lose their patience, and so he gives to the happy mortals on this earth the following counsel: _Riches, a vos plaisirs faites participer L’homme que les malheurs s’acharnent a frapper Oh, faites ghd sale travailler le ghd hair straightener pere de famille, Pour qu’il puisse arbiter la pudeur de sa fille, 126 George Sand George Sand The expression certainly leaves much to be desired in these poems, but they are not lacking in eloquence. We had already ghd ceramic iron had something of this kind, though, written by a poet who was not a bricklayer. He, too, had asked the rich the question following: _Dans vos fetes d’hiver, riches, heureux du monde, Quand le bal tournoyant de ses feux vous inonde. . . Songezvous qu’il est la, sous le givre et la neige, Ce pere sans travail que la famine assiege?_ He advises them to practise charity, the sister of prayer. _Donnez afin qu’un jour, a votre derniere heure, Contre tous vos peches vous ayez la Priere D’un mendiant puissant au ciel_.” We cannot, certainly, expect Poncy to be a Victor Hugo. But as we had Victor Hugo’s verses, of what use was it for them to be rewritten by Poncy? My reason for quoting a few of the fine lines from _Feuilles d’automne_ is that I felt an urgent need of clearing away all these platitudes. Poncy was not the only working-man poet. Other trades produced their poets too. The first poem in _Marines_ is addressed to Durand, a poet carpenter, who introduces himself as “_Enfant de la foret qui ceint Fontainebleau_.” This man handled the plane and the lyre, just as Poncy did the trowel and the lyre. This poetry of the working-classes was to give its admirers plenty of disappointment. George Sand advised Poncy to treat the things connected with his trade, in his poetry. “Do not try to put on other men’s clothes, but let us see you in literature with the plaster on your hands which is natural to you and which interests us,” she said to him. Proud of his success with the ladies of Paris, ghd products Poncy wanted to wash his hands, put on a coat, and go into society. It was all in vain that George 127 George Sand George Sand “An individual,” she said, “who poses as a poet, as a pure artist, ghd hair as a god like most of our great men do, whether they be _bourgeois_ or aristocrats, soon tires us with his personality. . . . Men are only interested in a man when that man is interested in humanity.” This was all of no use, though, for Poncy was most anxious to treat other subjects rather more lively and–slightly libertine. His literary godmother admonished him. “You are dedicating to _Juana l’Espagnole_ and to various other fantastical beauties verses that I do not approve. Are you a _bourgeois_ poet or a poet of the people? If the former, you can sing in honour of all the voluptuousness and all ghds leopard print the sirens of the universe, without ever having known either. You can sup with the most delicious houris or with all the street-walkers, in your poems, without ever leaving your fireside or having seen any greater beauty than the nose of your hall-porter. These gentlemen write their poetry in this way, and their rhyming is none the worse for it. But if you are a child of the people and the poet of the people, you ought not to leave the chaste breast of Desiree, in order to run about after dancing-girls and sing about their voluptuous arms.”[38] [38 pink hair straighteners ] See the letters addressed to Charles Poncy in the _Correspondance._ It is to be hoped that Poncy returned to the chaste Desiree. But why should he not read to the young woman the works of Pierre Leroux? We need a little gaiety in our life. In George Sand’s published _Correspondance_, we only have a few of her letters to Charles Poncy. They are all in excellent taste. There is an immense correspondence which M. Rocheblave will publish later on. This will be a treat for us, and it will no doubt prove that there was a depth of immense candour in the celebrated authoress. It does not seem to me that the writings of the working-men poets have greatly enriched French literature. Fortunately George Sand’s sympathy with the people found its way into literature in another way, and this time 128 George Sand George Sand A fresh edition of his book contained the letters of approval addressed to him by those who approved his campaign. ghd mk4 Among these signatures are the following: Nantais-Pret-a-bien-faire, Bourgignonla-Felicite, Decidele- Briard. All this is a curious history of the syndicates of the nineteenth century. Agricol Perdiguier may have seen the _Confederation du Travail_ dawning in the horizon. 129 George Sand George Sand In the _Meunier d’Angibault_ it is a working locksmith, Henri Lemor, who falls in love with Marcelle de BIanchemont. Born to wealth, she regrets that she is not the daughter or the mother of workingmen. Finally, however, she loses her fortune, and rejoices in this event. The personage who stands out in relief in this novel is the miller, Grand Louis. He is always gay and contented, with a smile on his lips, singing lively songs and giving advice to every one. In the _Peche de M. Antoine_, the _role_ of Grand Louis falls to Jean the carpenter. In this story all the people are communists, with the exception of the owner of the factory, who, in consequence, is treated with contempt. His son Emile marries the daughter of Monsieur Antoine. Her name is Gilberte, and a silly old man, the Marquis de Boisguilbaut, leaves her all his money, on condition that the young couple found a colony of agriculturists in which there shall be absolute communism. All these stories, full of eloquence and dissertations on the misfortune of being rich and the corrupting influence of wealth, would be insufferable, if it were not for the fact that the Angibault mill were in the Black Valley, and the crumbling chateau, belonging to Monsieur pink ghd Antoine, on the banks of the Creuse. They are very poor novels, and it would be a waste of time to attempt to defend them. They are not to be despised, though, as regards their influence on the rest of George Sand’s work, and also as regards the history of the French novel. They rendered great service to George Sand, inasmuch as they helped her to come out of herself and to turn her attention to the miseries of other people, instead of dwelling all the time on her own. The miseries she now saw were more general ones, and consequently more worthy of interest. In the history of the novel they are of capital importance Leopard print ghds , as they are the ghd hair styler first ones to bring into notice, by 130 George Sand George Sand As to their socialistic influence, it is supposed by many people that they had none. The kind of socialism that consists of making tinkers marry marchionesses, and duchesses marry zinc-workers, s

the philosopher to the vaudevillist, and from the professor to the song-maker, who did not wish pink hair ghd hair straightener straighteners to act as a torch on the path of humanity. Poets make revolutions, and show Plato how wrong he was in driving them away from his Republic. Sophocles was appointed a general at Athens for having written a good tragedy, and so novelists, dramatists, critics and makers of puns devoted themselves to making laws. George Sand was too much a woman of her times to keep aloof from such a movement. We shall now have to study her in her socialistic _role_. We can easily imagine on what side her sympathies were ghd mk4 . She had always been battling with institutions, and it seemed to her that institutions were undoubtedly in the wrong. She had proved that there was a great deal of suffering in the world, and as human nature is good at bottom, she decided that society was all wrong. She was a novelist, and she therefore considered that the most satisfactory solutions are those in which imagination and feeling play a great part. She also considered that the best politics are those which are the most like a novel. We must now follow her, step by step, along the various roads leading to Utopia. The truth is, that in that great manufactory of systems and that storehouse of panaceas which the France of Louis-Philippe had become, the only difficulty was to choose between them all. The first, in date, of the new gospels was that of the Saint-Simonians. 114 George Sand George Sand “I am an extraordinary man,” he said to her, “and you are just as extraordinary as a woman. You and I together would have a still more extraordinary child.” Madame de Stael evidently did not care to take part in the manufacture of this prodigy. pink ghd When George Sand’s first novels appeared, the Saint-Simonians were full of hope. This was the woman they had been waiting for, the free woman, who having meditated on the lot of her sisters would formulate the Declaration of the rights and duties ghds leopard print of woman. Adolphe Gueroult was sent to her. He was the editor of the _Opinion nationale_. George Sand had a great fund of common sense, though, and once more the little society awaited the Mother in vain. It was finally decided that she should be sought for in ghd hair styler the East. A mission was organized, and messengers were arrayed in white, as a sign of the vow of chastity, with a pilgrim’s staff in their hand. They begged as they went along, and slept sometimes outdoors, but more often at the police-station. George Sand was not tempted by this kind of maternity, but she kept in touch with the Saint-Simonians. She was present at one of their meetings at Menilmontant. Her published _Corrspondance_ contains a letter addressed by her to the Saint-Simonian family in Paris. As a matter of fact, she had received from it, on the 1st of January, 1836, a large collection of presents. There were in all no less than fifty-nine articles, among which were the following: a dress-box, a pair of boots, a thermometer, a carbine-carrier, a pair of trousers and a corset. 115 George Sand George Sand Among other great minds pink ghd affected by the influence of Saint-Simonism, it is scarcely surprising to find Lamennais. When George Sand first knew him, he was fifty-three years of age. He had broken with Rome, and was the apocalyptic author of _Paroles d’un croyant_. He put into his revolutionary faith all the fervour of his loving soul, a soul that had been created for apostleship, and to which the qualification of “a disaffected cathedral” certainly applied. After the famous trial, Liszt took him to call on George Sand in her attic. ghd iv This was in 1835. She gives us the following portrait of him: “Monsieur de Lamennais is short, thin, and looks ill. He seems to have only the feeblest breath of life in his body, but how his face beams. His nose is too prominent for his small figure and for his narrow face. If it were not for this nose out of all proportion, he would be handsome. He was very easily entertained. A mere nothing made him laugh, and how heartily he laughed.”[32] It was the gaiety of the seminarist, for Monsieur 116 George Sand George Sand [32] _Histoire de ma vie._ “He is so good and I like him so much,” she writes, “that I would give him as much of my blood and of my ink as he wants.”[33] She did not have to give him any of her blood, and he did not accept much of her ink. She commenced publishing her celebrated _Lettres a Marcie_ in _Le Monde_. We have already spoken of these letters, in order to show how George Sand gradually attenuated the harshness of her early feminism. [33] _Correspondance_: ghd sale To Jules Janin, February 15, 1837. These letters alarmed Lamennais, nevertheless, and she was obliged to discontinue them. Feminism was the germ of their disagreement. Lamennais said: “She does not forgive St. Paul ghd ceramic iron for having said: `Wives, obey your husbands.’” She continued to acknowledge him as “one of our saints,” but “the father of our new Church” gradually broke away from her and her friends, and expressed his opinion about her with a severity and Leopard print ghds harshness which are worthy of note. Lamennais’ ghd products letters to Baron de Vitrolles contain many allusions to George Sand, and they are most uncomplimentary. “I hear no more about Carlotta” (Madame Marliani), he writes, “nor about George Sand and Madame d’Agoult. I know there has been a great deal of quarrelling among them. They are as fond of each other as Lesage’s two _diables_, one of whom said: `That reconciled us, we kissed each other, and ever since then we have been mortal enemies.’” He also tells that there is a report that in her novel, entitled _Horace_, she has given as unflattering a portrait as possible of her dear, sweet, excellent 117 George Sand George Sand It was due to his teaching that George Sand obtained her definite ideas about Catholicism, or rather against it. She was decidedly its adversary, because she held that the Church had stifled the spirit of liberty, that it had thrown a veil over the words of Christ, and that it was the obstacle in the way of holy equality. What she owed specially, though, to Lamennais was another lesson, of quite another character. Lamennais was the man of the nineteenth century who waged the finest ghd hair battle against individualism, against “the scandal of the adoration of man by man.”[34] [34] Compare Brunetiere, _Evolution de la poesie lyrique_, vol. i. p. 310. Under his influence, George Sand began to attach less importance to the personal point of view, she ceased applying everything to herself, and she discovered the importance of the life of others. If we study this attentively, we shall see that a new phase now commenced in the history of her ideas. Lamennais was the origin of this transformation, although it is personified in another man, and that other man, was named Pierre Leroux. What a strange mystery it is, among so many other mysteries, that of one mind taking possession of another mind. We have come into contact 118 George Sand George Sand By the side of a Lamennais, this Pierre Leroux was a very puny personage. He had been a compositor in a printing works, before founding the _Globe_. This paper, in his hands, was to become an organ of Saint-Simonism. He

advocate, to teach him “the whole of French literature.” On relating this to some one, Cremieux remarked: “Great confusion seems to reign in this young man’s mind.” He had been wildly excited during the movement of 1830, greatly influenced by the Saint-Simon ideas, and was roused to enthusiasm by Lamennals, who had just published the _Paroles d’un Croyant_. After 92 George Sand George Sand ghd hair styler He had just given a fine example of applying romanticism to life. Marie d’Agoult, _nee_ de Flavigny, had decided, one fine day, to leave her husband and daughter for the sake of the passion that was everything to her. She accordingly started for Geneva, and Liszt joined her there. Between these two women a friendship sprang up, which was due rather to a wish to like each other than to a real attraction or real fellow- feeling. ghds leopard print The Comtesse d’Agoult, with her blue eyes, her slender figure, and somewhat ethereal style, was a veritable Diana, an aristocrat and a society woman. George Sand was her exact opposite. But the Comtesse d’Agoult had just “sacrificed all the vanities of the world for the sake of an artist,” so that she deserved consideration. The stay at pink ghd Geneva was gay and animated. The _Piffoels_ (George Sand and her children) and the _Fellows_ (Liszt and his pupil, Hermann Cohen) enjoyed scandalizing the whole hotel by their Bohemian ways. They went for an excursion to the frozen lake. At Lausanne Liszt played the organ. On returning to Paris the friends did not want to separate. In October, 1836, George Sand took 93 George Sand George Sand Among the _habitues_ of Madame d’Agoult’s _salon_ was Chopin. This is a new chapter in George Sand’s life, and a little later on we shall be able to consider, as a whole, the importance of this intercourse with great artists as regards her intellectual development. Before finishing our study of this epoch in her life, we must notice how much George Sand’s talent had developed and blossomed out. _Mauprat_ was published in 1837, and is undoubtedly the first of her _chefs-d’oeuvre_. In her uninterrupted literary production, which continued regularly in spite of and through all the storms of her private life, there is much that is strange and second-rate and ghd iv much that is excellent. _Jacques_ is an extraordinary piece of work. It was written at Venice when she was with Pagello. George Sand declared that she had neither put herself nor Musset into this book. She was nevertheless inspired by their case, and she merely transposed their ideal of renunciation. _Andre_ may be classed among the second-rate work. It is the story of a young noble who seduces a girl of the working-class. It is a souvenir of Berry, written in ghd ceramic iron a home-sick mood when George Sand was at Venice. _Simon_ also belongs to the second-rate category. The portrait of Michel of Bourges can easily be traced in it. George Sand had intended doing more for Michel than this. She composed a revolutionary novel in three volumes, in his honour, entitled: _Engelwald with the high forehead_. Buloz neither cared for _Engelwald_ nor for his high forehead, and this novel was never published. 94 George Sand George Sand “She is the only woman I have ever loved,” says Bernard de Mauprat. ghd sale “No other woman has ever attracted my attention or been embraced by me. I am like that. When I love, I love for ever, in the past, in the present and in the future.” _Mauprat_, then, according to George Sand, was a novel with a purpose, just as _Indiana_ was, although they each had an opposite purpose. Fortunately it is nothing of the kind. This is one of those explanations arranged afterwards, Leopard print ghds peculiar sometimes to authors. The reality about all this is quite different. In this book George Sand had just given the reins to her imagination, without allowing sociological preoccupations to spoil everything. During her excursions in Berry, she had stopped to gaze at the ruins of an old feudal castle. We all know the power of suggestion contained in those old stones, and how wonderfully they tell stories of the past they have ghd products witnessed to those persons who know how to question them. The remembrance of the _chateau_ of Roche Mauprat came to the mind of the novelist. She saw it just as it stood before the Revolution, a fortress, and at the same time a refuge for the wild lord and his eight sons, who used to sally forth and ravage the country. In French narrative literature there is nothing to surpass the first hundred pages in which George Sand introduces us to the burgraves of central France. She is just as happy when she takes us to Paris with Bernard de Mauprat, to Paris of the last days of the old _regime_. She introduces us to the society which she had learnt to know through the traditions of her grandmother. It is not only Nature, but history, which she uses as a setting for her story. How cleverly, too, she treats the analysis which is the true subject of the book, 95 George Sand George Sand There are typical peasants, too, in _Mauprat_. We have Marcasse, the mole-catcher, ghd hair and Patience, the good-natured Patience, the rustic philosopher, well up in Epictetus and in Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who has gone into the woods to live his life according to the laws of Nature and to find the wisdom of the primitive days of the world. We are told that, during the Revolution, Patience was a sort of intermediary between the _chateau_ and the cottage, and that he helped in bringing about the reign of equity in his district. It is to be hoped this was so. In any case, pink hair straighteners it is very certain that we come across this Patience again in Russian novels with a name ending in _ow_ or _ew_. This is a proof that if the personage seems somewhat impossible, he was at any rate original, new and entertaining. We hear people say that George Sand is no longer read. It is to be hoped that _Mauprat_ is still read, otherwise our modern readers miss one of the finest stories in the history of novels. This, then, is the point at which we have arrived in the evolution of George Sand’s genius. There may still be modifications in her style, and her talent may still be refreshed under various influences, but with _Mauprat_ she took her place in the first rank of great storytellers.} 96 George Sand George Sand A CASE OF MATERNAL AFFECTION IN LOVE CHOPIN We have passed over George Sand’s intercourse with Liszt and Madame d’Agoult very rapidly. One of Balzac’s novels gives us an opportunity of saying a few more words about it. Balzac had been introduced to George Sand by Jules Sandeau. At the time of her rupture with his friend, Balzac had sided entirely with him. In the _Lettres a l’Etrangere_, we see the author of the _Comedie humaine_ pouring out his indignation ghd hair straightener with the blue stocking, who was so cruel in her love, in terms which were not extremely elegant ghd mk4 . Gradually, and when he knew more about the adventure, his anger cooled down. In March, 1838, he gave Madame Zulma Carraud an account of a visit to Nohant. He found his comrade, George Sand, in her dressing-gown, smoking a cigar by her fireside after dinner. “She had some pretty yellow slippers on, ornamented with fringe, some fancy stockings and red trousers. So much for the moral side. Physically, she had doubled her chin like a canoness. She had not a single white hair, in spite of all her fearful misfortunes; her dusky complexion had not changed. Her beautiful eyes were just as bright, and she looked just as stupid as ever when she was thinking. . . .” This is George Sand in her thirty-fifth year, as she was at pink ghd the time of the fresh adventure we are about to relate. Balzac continues by giving us a few details about the life of the authoress. It was very much like his own, except that Balzac went to bed at six o’clock and got up at midnight, and George Sand went to bed at six in the morning and got up at noon. He adds the following remark, which shows us the state of her feelings: “She is now in a very quiet retreat, and condemns both marriage and love, because she has had nothing but disappointment in both herself. Her man was a rare one, that was really all.” In the course of their friendly conversation,

constantly adding another chapter, like so many links in a never-ending chain. She now gave a hero to her romance, a hero whose name was Corambe. He was her ideal, a man whom she had made her god. Whilst blood was flowing freely on the altars of barbarous gods, on Corambe’s altar life and liberty were given to a whole crowd of captive creatures, to a swallow, to a robin-redbreast, and even to a sparrow. We see already in all this her tendency to put moral intentions into her romantic stories, to arrange her adventures in such a way that they should serve as examples for making mankind better. These were the novels, with a purpose, of her twelfth year. Let us now study nike shox uk a striking contrast, by way of observing the first signs of vocation in two totally different novelists. In the beginning of _Facino Cane_, nike air max 180 Balzac tells us an incident of the time when, as an aspiring writer, he lived in his attic in the Rue Lesdiguieres. One evening, on coming out of the theatre, he amused himself with following a workingman and his wife from the Boulevard du Pontaux-Choux to the Boulevard Beaumarchais. He listened to them as they talked of the piece they had just seen. They then discussed their business matters, and afterwards house and family affairs. “While listening to this couple,” says Balzac, “I 40 George Sand George nike air max 2009 Sand This is the novelist of the objective school, the one who comes out of himself, who ceases to be himself and becomes another person. Instead of this exterior world, to which Balzac adapts himself, nike air max 90 current Aurore talks to us of an inner world, emanating from her own fancy, the reflection of her own imagination, the echo of her own heart, which is really herself. This explains the difference between Balzac’s impersonal novel and George Sand’s personal novel. It is just the difference between realistic art, which gives way to the object, and idealistic art, which transforms this according to its own will and pleasure. Up to this time George Sand’s ideas had not been put on to paper. Both _Corambe_ and the stories composed between four chairs were merely fancies of a child’s mind. Aurore soon began to write, though. She had composed two novels while in the convent, one of which was religious and the other a pastoral story. She was wise enough to tear them both up. On leaving the convent she wrote another novel for Rene’ de Villeneuve, and this shared the same fate. In 1827, she wrote her _Voyage en Auvergne_, and in 1829, another novel. In her _Histoire de nike shox ma vie_ she says of this: “After reading it, I was convinced that it was of no value, but at the same time I was sure I could write a better one. . . . I saw that I could write quickly and easily, and without feeling any fatigue. The ideas that were lying dormant in my mind were quickened and became connected, by my deductions, as I wrote. With my meditative life, I had nike air max wright observed a great deal, and had understood the various characters which Fate had put in my way, so that I really knew enough of human nature to be able to depict it.” She now had that facility, that abundance of matter and that nonchalance which were such characteristic features of her writing. When George Sand began to publish, she had already written a great deal. Her literary formation was complete. We notice this same thing whenever we study the early work of a writer. Genius is revealed to us, perhaps, with a sudden flash, but it has been making its way for a long time underground, so that what we take for a spontaneous burst of genius 41 nike air max 90 infrared George Sand George Sand George Sand had to go through the inevitable period of feeling her way. We are glad to think that the first book she published was not written by herself alone, so that the responsibility of that execrable novel does not lie solely with her. On the 9th of March, 1831, George Sand wrote to Boucoiran as follows: “Monstrosities are in vogue, so we must invent monstrosities. I am bringing forth a very pleasant one just at present. . . .” This was the novel written in collaboration with Sandeau which appeared under the signature of Jules Sand towards the end of 1831. It was entitled, _Rose et Blanche, ou la Comedienne et la Religieuse_. It begins by a scene nike air max 360 in a coach, rather like certain novels by Balzac, but accompanied by insignificant details in the worst taste imaginable. Two girls are travelling in the same coach. Rose is a young comedian, and Sister Blanche is about to become a nun. They separate at Tarbes, and the scene of the story is laid in the region of the Pyrenees, in Tarbes Auch, Nerac, the Landes, and finishes with the return to Paris. Rose, after an entertainment which is a veritable orgy, is handed over by her mother to a licentious young man. He is ashamed of himself, and, instead of leading Rose astray, he takes her to the Convent of the Augustines, where she finds Sister Blanche once more. Sister Blanche has not yet pronounced her vows, and the proof of this is that she marries Horace. But what a wedding! As a matter of fact, Sister Blanche was formerly named Denise. She was the daughter of a seafaring man of Bordeaux, and was both pretty and foolish. She had been dishonoured by the young libertine whom she is now to marry. The memory of the past comes back to Blanche, and makes her live over again her life as Denise. In the mean time Rose had become a great singer. She now arrives, just in time to be present at her friend’s deathbed. She enters the convent herself, and takes the place left vacant by Sister Blanche. The whole of this is absurd and frequently very disagreeable. nike air max tn It is quite easy to distinguish the parts due to the two cheap nike shox collaborators, and to see that George Sand wrote nearly all the book. There are the 42 George Sand George Sand Such, then, is this hybrid composition. It nike air max 90 was, in reality, the monstrosity announced by George Sand. It had a certain success, but the person who was most severe in her judgment of it was Sophie-Victoire, George Sand’s mother, who had very prudish tastes in literature. This woman is perfectly delightful, and every time we come across her it is a fresh joy. Her daughter was obliged to make some excuse for herself, and this she did by stating that the work was not entirely her own. “I do not approve of a great deal of the nonsense,” she writes, “and I only let certain things pass to please my publisher, who wanted something rather lively. . . . I do not like the risky parts myself. . . .” Later on in the same letter, she adds: “There is nothing of the kind in the book I am writing now, and I am using nothing of my collaborator’s in this, except his name.”[15] [15] _Correspondance_: To her mother, February 22, 1832. This was true. Jules Sand had had his day, and the book of which she now speaks was _Indiana_. She signed this “George Sand.” The unpublished correspondence with Emile Regnault, some fragments of which we have just read, contains a most interesting letter concerning the composition of _Indiana_. It is dated February 28, 1832. George Sand first insists on the severity of the subject and cheap nike air max on its 43 Air Max 2011 George Sand George